Journal of Microbiology

Review

Extracellular vesicles in human fungal pathogens: Biogenesis, functions, and translational applications: Catia Mota, Heeyoun Hwang, Hyun Ah Kang; J. Microbiol. 2026;64(7):e2606008. Published online July 31, 2026; DOI: https://doi.org/10.71150/jm.2606008

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Abstract PDF: Fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as critical mediators of fungal physiology, virulence, and host–pathogen interactions. Since their first description in Cryptococcus neoformans, EVs have been identified in several fungal species and shown to transport a broad repertoire of bioactive cargo. Increasing evidence indicates that fungal EVs participate in multiple biological processes, including cell wall remodeling, stress adaptation, biofilm formation, antifungal resistance, and modulation of host immune responses. Recent advances in cryo-electron microscopy, multi-omics approaches, and functional genetics have substantially expanded our understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing EV biogenesis, cargo selection, and extracellular trafficking. These studies have further revealed that EV cargo loading is a highly regulated process linked to intracellular proteostasis, glycosylation, lipid homeostasis, and environmental adaptation. In parallel, the intrinsic immunogenicity and structural stability of fungal EVs have highlighted their translational potential as diagnostic biomarkers, vaccine platforms, therapeutic targets, and nanoscale delivery systems. Given the increasing global burden of invasive fungal infections, this review focuses on EVs derived from clinically relevant human fungal pathogens. We summarize recent advances in EV biogenesis, cargo regulation, their roles in pathogenesis, highlight emerging translational applications, and discuss key unresolved questions and future research directions in the field.

Review

Extracellular vesicles of Gram-negative and Gram-positive probiotics: Yangyunqi Wang, Chongxu Duan, Xiaomin Yu; J. Microbiol. 2025;63(7):e2506005. Published online July 31, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.71150/jm.2506005

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Extracellular vesicles derived from probiotics have received considerable attention for their pivotal role in bacterial‒host communication. These nanosized, bilayer-encapsulated vesicles carry diverse bioactive molecules, such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and metabolites. Currently, ample evidence has emerged that probiotic extracellular vesicles may modulate several processes of host physiological hemostasis and offer therapeutic benefits. This review examines the biogenesis, composition, and immunomodulatory functions of probiotic-derived extracellular vesicles in probiotic–host interactions, highlighting the therapeutic potential of probiotic extracellular vesicles in the diagnosis and treatment of conditions such as cancer and inflammatory bowel disease. We further summarize the techniques for the separation and purification of extracellular vesicles, providing a methodological foundation for future research and applications. Although the field of probiotic extracellular vesicle research is still in its infancy, the prospects for their application in the biomedical field are broad, potentially emerging as a novel therapeutic approach.

Citations

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Advances in Biological Functions and Applications of Feeding Microorganism-derived Extracellular Vesicles
Yuanyuan Zhu, Xiaofang Zhang, Xin Feng, Yanyan Huang, Langhong Wang, Huihua Zhang, Xinan Zeng, Zhonglin Tang, Qien Qi
Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins.2026; 18(4): 5145. CrossRef
Decoding bacterial extracellular vesicles: A review on isolation and characterization techniques
Malatesh S. Devati, Apoorva Jnana, Stephen P. Kidd, Slade O. Jensen, T. G. Satheesh Babu, Dinesh Upadhya, Thokur S. Murali
Archives of Microbiology.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
The supernatant of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 25 is more effective than extracellular vesicles in alleviating ulcerative colitis and improving intestinal barrier function
Shuang Gong, Xin Li, Qiong Zhang, Rui Wang, Ruixia Zeng, Yibo Zhang
Frontiers in Microbiology.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
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Xue-mei Zhang, Hai-ling Wang, Ahequeli Gemingnuer, Yuan Tian, Xin Meng
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Defa Huang, Haibin Shen, Qing Jin, Tao Chen, Yuhuan Xie, Dingyu Rao, Meijin Liu
Frontiers in Immunology.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
Bacterial-derived extracellular vesicles as master regulators of intestinal barrier function, neurodegenerative diseases and metabolic health
Muhammad Zahoor Khan, Abd Ullah, Abdul Qadeer, Yan Li, Khalaf F. Alsharif, Fuad M. Alzahrani, Khalid J. Alzahrani, Abdulwahab Abuderman, Qingshan Ma, Changfa Wang
Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology.2026; 122: 108466. CrossRef
Food-derived extracellular vesicles modulate ferroptosis: Implications for functional food development and healthy aging
Lin Zhang, Wangying Qiu, Mingrun Lu, Shuting Lan, Zuokai Lv, Haiyan Zhang, Yue Pang, Xingcan Zhang, Wenjing Xu, Haitao Wang, Jiahui Liu, Jiahui Ma, Chenzhe Gao
Food Research International.2026; 242: 119899. CrossRef
Standardizing Bacterial Extracellular Vesicle Purification: A Call for Consensus
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Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology.2025;[Epub] CrossRef

Article

Characterization of the effects of terminators and introns on recombinant gene expression in the basidiomycete Ceriporiopsis subvermispora: Dong Xuan Nguyen , Emi Nishisaka , Moriyuki Kawauchi , Takehito Nakazawa , Masahiro Sakamoto , Yoichi Honda; J. Microbiol. 2020;58(12):1037-1045. Published online September 30, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-020-0213-2

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Abstract PDF

Terminators and introns are vital regulators of gene expression in many eukaryotes; however, the functional importance of these elements for controlling gene expression in Agaricomycetes remains unclear. In this study, the effects of Ceriporiopsis subvermispora terminators and introns on the expression of a recombinant hygromycin B phosphotransferase gene (hph) were characterized. Using a transient transformation system, we proved that a highly active terminator (e.g., the gpd terminator) is required for the efficient expression of the hph gene. Mutational analyses of the C. subvermispora gpd terminator revealed that hph expression was dictated by an A-rich region, which included a putative positioning element, and polyadenylation sites. In contrast, our results indicated that introns are not required for the expression of hph directed by the Csβ1-tub and Csgpd promoters in C. subvermispora. This study provides insights into the functions and cis-element requirements of transcriptional terminators in Agaricomycetes, which may be relevant for designing recombinant genes for this important fungal class.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

Toward synthetic biology in mushroom-forming Agaricomycete fungi: from tools to applications
Peter M. Allen, Deniz Sinar, Shahar Schwartz, Vayu Hill-Maini, Joseph Heitman
Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
Development of a 2A peptide-based multigene expression system and its application for enhanced production of ganoderic acids in Ganoderma lucidum
Qiong Wang, Hong-Jun Liu, Yan Xu, Zi-Xu Wang, Bin Sun, Jun-Wei Xu
Journal of Biotechnology.2024; 393: 109. CrossRef
CRISPR/Cas9 using a transient transformation system in Ceriporiopsis subvermispora
Takehito Nakazawa, Chikako Inoue, Dong Xuan Nguyen, Moriyuki Kawauchi, Masahiro Sakamoto, Yoichi Honda
Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.2022; 106(17): 5575. CrossRef
A promoter assay system using gene targeting in agaricomycetes Pleurotus ostreatus and Coprinopsis cinerea
Dong Xuan Nguyen, Takehito Nakazawa, Genki Myo, Chikako Inoue, Moriyuki Kawauchi, Masahiro Sakamoto, Yoichi Honda
Journal of Microbiological Methods.2020; 179: 106053. CrossRef

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