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Syntaxin17 Restores Lysosomal Function and Inhibits Pyroptosis Caused by Acinetobacter baumannii
Zhiyuan An, Wenyi Ding
J. Microbiol. 2024;62(4):315-325.   Published online March 7, 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-024-00109-0
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AbstractAbstract
Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii) causes autophagy flux disorder by degrading STX17, resulting in a serious inflammatory response. It remains unclear whether STX17 can alter the inflammatory response process by controlling autolysosome function. This study aimed to explore the role of STX17 in the regulation of pyroptosis induced by A. baumannii. Our findings indicate that overexpression of STX17 enhances autophagosome degradation, increases LAMP1 expression, reduces Cathepsin B release, and improves lysosomal function. Conversely, knockdown of STX17 suppresses autophagosome degradation, reduces LAMP1 expression, augments Cathepsin B release, and accelerates lysosomal dysfunction. In instances of A. baumannii infection, overexpression of STX17 was found to improve lysosomal function and reduce the expression of mature of GSDMD and IL-1β, along with the release of LDH, thus inhibiting pyroptosis caused by A. baumannii. Conversely, knockdown of STX17 led to increased lysosomal dysfunction and further enhanced the expression of mature of GSDMD and IL-1β, and increased the release of LDH, exacerbating pyroptosis induced by A. baumannii. These findings suggest that STX17 regulates pyroptosis induced by A. baumannii by modulating lysosomal function.
A Method for Physical Analysis of Recombination Intermediates in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Kiwon Rhee , Hyungseok Choi , Keun P. Kim , Jeong H. Joo
J. Microbiol. 2023;61(11):939-951.   Published online December 11, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-023-00094-w
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AbstractAbstract
Meiosis is a process through which diploid cells divide into haploid cells, thus promoting genetic diversity. This diversity arises from the formation of genetic crossovers (COs) that repair DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), through homologous recombination (HR). Deficiencies in HR can lead to chromosomal abnormality resulting from chromosomal nondisjunction, and genetic disorders. Therefore, investigating the mechanisms underlying effective HR is crucial for reducing genome instability. Budding yeast serves as an ideal model for studying HR mechanisms due to its amenability to gene modifications and the ease of inducing synchronized meiosis to yield four spores. During meiosis, at the DNA level, programmed DSBs are repaired as COs or non-crossovers (NCOs) through structural alterations in the nascent D-loop, involving single-end invasions (SEIs) and double-Holliday junctions (dHJs). This repair occurs using homologous templates rather than sister templates. This protocol, using Southern blotting, allows for the analysis and monitoring of changes in DNA structures in the recombination process. One-dimensional (1D) gel electrophoresis is employed to detect DSBs, COs, and NCOs, while twodimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis is utilized to identify joint molecules (JMs). Therefore, physical analysis is considered the most effective method for investigating the HR mechanism. Our protocol provides more comprehensive information than previous reports by introducing conditions for obtaining a greater number of cells from synchronized yeast and a method that can analyze not only meiotic/mitotic recombination but also mitotic replication.
Yeast polyubiquitin unit regulates synaptonemal complex formation and recombination during meiosis
Min-Kyung Jo , Kiwon Rhee , Keun Pil Kim , Soogil Hong
J. Microbiol. 2022;60(7):705-714.   Published online July 4, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-022-2204-y
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AbstractAbstract
Ubiquitin is highly conserved in most eukaryotes and involved in diverse physiological processes, including cell division, protein quality control, and protein degradation mediated by the ubiquitin-proteasome system after heat shock, glucose-starvation, and oxidative stress. However, the role of the ubiquitin gene UBI4, which contains five consecutive head-to-tail ubiquitin repeats, in meiosis has not been investigated. In this study, we show that the Saccharomyces cerevisiae polyubiquitin precursor gene, UBI4, is required to promote synaptonemal complex (SC) formation and suppress excess doublestrand break formation. Moreover, the proportion of Zip1 polycomplexes, which indicate abnormal SC formation, in cells with a mutation in UBI4 (i.e., ubi4Δ cells) is higher than that of wild-type cells, implying that the UBI4 plays an important role in the early meiotic prophase I. Interestingly, although ubi4Δ cells rarely form full-length SCs in the pachytene stage of prophase I, the Zip3 foci are still seen, as in wild-type cells. Moreover, ubi4Δ cells proficiently form crossover and noncrossover products with a slight delay compared to wild-type cells, suggesting that UBI4 is dispensable in SCcoupled recombination. Our findings demonstrate that UBI4 exhibits dual functions that are associated with both positive and negative roles in SC formation and recombination during meiosis.

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  • The deubiquitinase Usp7 in Drosophila melanogaster is required for synaptonemal complex maintenance
    Cathleen M. Lake, Jennifer Gardner, Salam Briggs, Zulin Yu, Grace McKown, R. Scott Hawley
    Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
Weigela florida inhibits the expression of inflammatory mediators induced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus infection
Hyo Bin Kim , Soomin Cho , Yeji Lee , Weihui Wu , Un-Hwan Ha
J. Microbiol. 2022;60(6):649-656.   Published online April 30, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-022-1638-6
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AbstractAbstract
Inflammatory responses involve the action of inflammatory mediators that are necessary for the clearance of invading bacterial pathogens. However, excessive production of inflammatory mediators can damage tissues, thereby impairing bacterial clearance. Here, we examined the effects of Weigela florida on the expression of inflammatory cytokines induced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Staphylococcus aureus infection in macrophages. The results showed that pre-treatment with W. florida markedly downregulated the bacterial infectionmediated expression of cytokines. Additionally, post-treatment also triggered anti-inflammatory effects in cells infected with S. aureus to a greater extent than in those infected with P. aeruginosa. Bacterial infection activated inflammation-associated AKT (Thr308 and Ser473)/NF-κB and MAPK (p38, JNK, and ERK) signaling pathways, whereas W. florida treatment typically inhibited the phosphorylation of AKT/NF‐κB and p38/JNK, supporting the anti‐inflammatory effects of W. florida. The present results suggest that W. florida decreases the infection-mediated expression of inflammatory mediators by inhibiting the AKT/NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, implying that it may have potential use as an inhibitory agent of excessive inflammatory responses.

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  • Multifunctional fluorescence probe for simultaneous detection of viscosity, polarity, and ONOO− and its bioimaging in vitro and vivo
    Yuan-Yuan Li, Jia-Ling Hu, Ji-Rou Wu, Yi-Ru Wang, Ai-Hong Zhang, Yu-Wei Tan, Ya-Jing Shang, Ting Liang, Min Li, Ya-Li Meng, Yan-Fei Kang
    Biosensors and Bioelectronics.2024; 254: 116233.     CrossRef
  • Polymicrobial interactions influence Mycobacterium abscessus co-existence and biofilm forming capabilities
    Nishant Nandanwar, Geoffery Gu, Joy E. Gibson, Michael N. Neely
    Frontiers in Microbiology.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Tissue damage alleviation and mucin inhibition by P5 in a respiratory infection mouse model with multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii
    Jun Hee Oh, Jonggwan Park, Hee Kyoung Kang, Hee Joo Park, Yoonkyung Park
    Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy.2024; 181: 117724.     CrossRef
  • Spatiotemporal Deep-Learning-Based Algal Bloom Prediction for Lake Okeechobee Using Multisource Data Fusion
    Yufei Tang, Yingqi Feng, Sasha Fung, Veronica Ruiz Xomchuk, Mingshun Jiang, Tim Moore, Jordon Beckler
    IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing.2022; 15: 8318.     CrossRef
The inner membrane protein LapB is required for adaptation to cold stress in an LpxC-independent manner
Han Byeol Lee , Si Hyoung Park , Chang-Ro Lee
J. Microbiol. 2021;59(7):666-674.   Published online May 15, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-021-1130-8
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AbstractAbstract
The inner membrane protein lipopolysaccharide assembly protein B (LapB) is an adaptor protein that activates the proteolysis of LpxC by an essential inner membrane metalloprotease, FtsH, leading to a decrease in the level of lipopolysaccharide in the membrane. In this study, we revealed the mechanism by which the essential inner membrane protein YejM regulates LapB and analyzed the role of the transmembrane domain of LapB in Escherichia coli. The transmembrane domain of YejM genetically and physically interacted with LapB and inhibited its function, which led to the accumulation of LpxC. The transmembrane domain of LapB was indispensable for both its physical interaction with YejM and its regulation of LpxC proteolysis. Notably, we found that the lapB mutant exhibited strong cold sensitivity and this phenotype was not associated with increased accumulation of LpxC. The transmembrane domain of LapB was also required for its role in adaptation to cold stress. Taken together, these
results
showed that LapB plays an important role in both the regulation of LpxC level, which is controlled by its interaction with the transmembrane domain of YejM, and adaptation to cold stress, which is independent of LpxC.

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  • PhoPQ-mediated lipopolysaccharide modification governs intrinsic resistance to tetracycline and glycylcycline antibiotics in Escherichia coli
    Byoung Jun Choi, Umji Choi, Dae-Beom Ryu, Chang-Ro Lee, Mehrad Hamidian, You-Hee Cho
    mSystems.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Lytic transglycosylase repertoire diversity enables intrinsic antibiotic resistance and daughter cell separation in Escherichia coli under acidic stress
    Ji Eun Son, Si Hyoung Park, Umji Choi, Chang-Ro Lee, Laurent Poirel
    Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Trans-cinnamaldehyde inhibits Escherichia coli growth by regulating lipopolysaccharide accumulation
    Huanling Xing, Xiaomin Liu, Jianhao Lin, Mingfei Sun, Junyi Huang, Xinghai Li, Yanqun Li, Shining Guo, Fang Zhou, Hong Wu
    Food Bioscience.2024; 61: 104559.     CrossRef
  • Coordinated and Distinct Roles of Peptidoglycan Carboxypeptidases DacC and DacA in Cell Growth and Shape Maintenance under Stress Conditions
    Umji Choi, Si Hyoung Park, Han Byeol Lee, Ji Eun Son, Chang-Ro Lee, Cristina Solano
    Microbiology Spectrum.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • NoiD, a DedA membrane protein required for homeostasis maintaining of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar viciae during symbiosis with Pisum sativum
    Xiaofang Li, Jiaming Xu, Yajuan Wei, Zirui Chen
    Symbiosis.2022; 86(1): 81.     CrossRef
  • Conserved Tandem Arginines for PbgA/YejM Allow Salmonella Typhimurium To Regulate LpxC and Control Lipopolysaccharide Biogenesis during Infection
    Nicole P. Giordano, Joshua A. Mettlach, Zachary D. Dalebroux, Manuela Raffatellu
    Infection and Immunity.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Divergent Effects of Peptidoglycan Carboxypeptidase DacA on Intrinsic β-Lactam and Vancomycin Resistance
    Si Hyoung Park, Umji Choi, Su-Hyun Ryu, Han Byeol Lee, Jin-Won Lee, Chang-Ro Lee, Krisztina M. Papp-Wallace
    Microbiology Spectrum.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Cryo-EM structure of transmembrane AAA+ protease FtsH in the ADP state
    Wu Liu, Martien Schoonen, Tong Wang, Sean McSweeney, Qun Liu
    Communications Biology.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Checkpoints That Regulate Balanced Biosynthesis of Lipopolysaccharide and Its Essentiality in Escherichia coli
    Gracjana Klein, Alicja Wieczorek, Martyna Szuster, Satish Raina
    International Journal of Molecular Sciences.2021; 23(1): 189.     CrossRef
Biophysical characterization of antibacterial compounds derived from pathogenic fungi Ganoderma boninense
Syahriel Abdullah , Yoon Sin Oh , Min-Kyu Kwak , KhimPhin Chong
J. Microbiol. 2021;59(2):164-174.   Published online December 23, 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-021-0551-8
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AbstractAbstract
There have been relatively few studies which support a link between Ganoderma boninense, a phytopathogenic fungus that is particularly cytotoxic and pathogenic to plant tissues and roots, and antimicrobial compounds. We previously observed that liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) using chloroformmethanol- water at a ratio (1:1:1) was superior at detecting antibacterial activities and significant quantities of antibacterial compounds. Herein, we demonstrate that antibacterial secondary metabolites are produced from G. boninense mycelia. Antibacterial compounds were monitored in concurrent biochemical and biophysical experiments. The combined
methods
included high performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The antibacterial compounds derived from mycelia with chloroform-methanol extraction through LLE were isolated via a gradient solvent elution system using HPTLC. The antibacterial activity of the isolated compounds was observed to be the most potent against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 and multidrug-resistant S. aureus NCTC 11939. GC-MS, HPLC, and FTIR analysis confirmed two antibacterial compounds, which were identified as 4,4,14α-trimethylcholestane (m/z = 414.75; lanostane, C30H54) and ergosta-5,7,22-trien-3β-ol (m/z = 396.65; ergosterol, C28H44O). With the aid of spectroscopic evaluations, ganoboninketal (m/z = 498.66, C30H42O6), which belongs to the 3,4-seco-27-norlanostane triterpene family, was additionally characterized by 2D-NMR analysis. Despite the lack of antibacterial potential exhibited by lanostane; both ergosterol and ganoboninketal displayed significant antibacterial activities against bacterial pathogens. Results provide evidence for the existence of bioactive compounds in the mycelia of the relatively unexplored phytopathogenic G. boninense, together with a robust method for estimating the corresponding potent antibacterial secondary metabolites.

Citations

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  • Anti-Staphylococcus aureus potential of compounds from Ganoderma sp.: A comprehensive molecular docking and simulation approaches
    Trang Thi Thu Nguyen, Trinh Thi Tuyet Nguyen, Hoang Duc Nguyen, Tan Khanh Nguyen, Phu Tran Vinh Pham, Linh Thuy Thi Tran, Hong Khuyen Thi Pham, Phu Chi Hieu Truong, Linh Thuoc Tran, Manh Hung Tran
    Heliyon.2024; 10(7): e28118.     CrossRef
  • Medium composition optimization and characterization of polysaccharides extracted from Ganoderma boninense along with antioxidant activity
    Qian-Zhu Li, Chuan Xiong, Wei Chee Wong, Li-Wei Zhou
    International Journal of Biological Macromolecules.2024; 260: 129528.     CrossRef
  • Plant Defense Inducers and Antioxidant Metabolites Produced During Oil Palm-Ganoderma boninense Interaction In Vitro
    Neda Shokrollahi, Chai-Ling Ho, Nur Ain Izzati Mohd Zainudin, Mohd As’wad Bin Abdul Wahab, Mui-Yun Wong
    Chemistry Africa.2023; 6(1): 499.     CrossRef
  • Identification of Antibacterial Metabolites from Endophytic Fungus Aspergillus fumigatus, Isolated from Albizia lucidior Leaves (Fabaceae), Utilizing Metabolomic and Molecular Docking Techniques
    Mai E. Hussein, Osama G. Mohamed, Ahlam M. El-Fishawy, Hesham I. El-Askary, Amira S. El-Senousy, Ahmed A. El-Beih, Eman S. Nossier, Ahmed M. Naglah, Abdulrahman A. Almehizia, Ashootosh Tripathi, Ahmed A. Hamed
    Molecules.2022; 27(3): 1117.     CrossRef
  • Bioactive Compounds of Ganoderma boninense Inhibited Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Growth by Affecting Their Cell Membrane Permeability and Integrity
    Yow-San Chan, Khim-Phin Chong
    Molecules.2022; 27(3): 838.     CrossRef
  • Review Update on the Life Cycle, Plant–Microbe Interaction, Genomics, Detection and Control Strategies of the Oil Palm Pathogen Ganoderma boninense
    Izwan Bharudin, Anis Farhan Fatimi Ab Wahab, Muhammad Asyraff Abd Samad, Ng Xin Yie, Madihah Ahmad Zairun, Farah Diba Abu Bakar, Abdul Munir Abdul Murad
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  • Screening for Antibacterial Activity of French Mushrooms against Pathogenic and Multidrug Resistant Bacteria
    Clément Huguet, Mélanie Bourjot, Jean-Michel Bellanger, Gilles Prévost, Aurélie Urbain
    Applied Sciences.2022; 12(10): 5229.     CrossRef
Review
[MINIREVIEW]Phosphate sugar isomerases and their potential for rare sugar bioconversion
Soo-Jung Kim , Yeong-Su Kim , Soo-Jin Yeom
J. Microbiol. 2020;58(9):725-733.   Published online June 25, 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-020-0226-x
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AbstractAbstract
Phosphate sugar isomerases, catalyzing the isomerization between ketopentose/ketohexose phosphate and aldopentose/ aldohexose phosphate, play an important role in microbial sugar metabolism. They are present in a wide range of microorganisms. They have attracted increasing research interest because of their broad substrate specificity and great potential in the enzymatic production of various rare sugars. Here, the enzymatic properties of various phosphate sugar isomerases are reviewed in terms of their substrate specificities and their applications in the production of valuable rare sugars because of their functions such as low-calorie sweeteners, bulking agents, and pharmaceutical precursor. Specifically, we focused on the industrial applications of D-ribose-5-phosphate isomerase and D-mannose-6-phosphate isomerase to produce D-allose and L-ribose, respectively.

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  • Production of Value-Added Arabinofuranosyl Nucleotide Analogues from Nucleoside by an In Vitro Enzymatic Synthetic Biosystem
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    Lynn Heo, Yoobin Han, Yongmin Cho, Junhyeok Choi, Jeongwook Lee, Sang-Wook Han
    Frontiers in Plant Science.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
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  • Simultaneous Production of D-Tagatose, D-Arabitol and Galactitol from Cheese Whey Powder Using Combined Biotransformation and Fermentation Strategies
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Journal Articles
Autophagy of bovine mammary epithelial cell induced by intracellular Staphylococcus aureus
Na Geng , Kangping Liu , Jianwei Lu , Yuliang Xu , Xiaozhou Wang , Run Wang , Jianzhu Liu , Yongxia Liu , Bo Han
J. Microbiol. 2020;58(4):320-329.   Published online February 26, 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-020-9182-8
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AbstractAbstract
Bovine mastitis is a common disease in the dairy industry that causes great economic losses. As the primary pathogen of contagious mastitis, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) can invade bovine mammary epithelial cells, thus evading immune defenses and resulting in persistent infection. Recently, autophagy has been considered an important mechanism for host cells to clear intracellular pathogens. In the current study, autophagy caused by S. aureus was detected, and the correlation between autophagy and intracellular S. aureus survival was assessed. First, a model of intracellular S. aureus infection was established. Then, the autophagy of MAC-T cells was evaluated by confocal microscopy and western blot. Moreover, the activation of the PI3K-Akt-mTOR and ERK1/2 signaling pathways was determined by western blot. Finally, the relationship between intracellular bacteria and autophagy was analyzed by using autophagy regulators (3-methyladenine [3-MA], rapamycin [Rapa] and chloroquine [CQ]). The
results
showed that S. aureus caused obvious induction of autophagosome formation, transformation of LC3I/II, and degradation of p62/SQSTM1 in MAC-T cells; furthermore, the PI3K-Akt-mTOR and ERK1/2 signaling pathways were activated. The number of intracellular S. aureus increased significantly with autophagy activation by rapamycin, whereas the number decreased when the autophagy flux was inhibited by chloroquine. Therefore, this study indicated that intracellular S. aureus can induce autophagy and utilize it to survive in bovine mammary epithelial cells.

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  • Carotenoids as modulators of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway: innovative strategies in cancer therapy
    Biswajit Kumar Utpal, Zerrouki Dehbia, B. M. Redwan Matin Zidan, Sherouk Hussein Sweilam, Laliteshwar Pratap Singh, M. S. Arunkumar, M. Sona, Uttam Prasad Panigrahy, R. Keerthana, Sandhya Rani Mandadi, Safia Obaidur Rab, Mohammed Ali Alshehri, Doukani Kou
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    Animals.2024; 14(17): 2587.     CrossRef
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    Puxiu Shen, Jingcheng Yu, Chenbo Yan, Dexin Yang, Chao Tong, Xinzhuang Wang
    Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition.2023; 107(2): 463.     CrossRef
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    Ruiyuan Yao, Manshulin Wang, Yue Zhao, Qiang Ji, Xue Feng, Linfeng Bai, Lili Bao, Yanfeng Wang, Huifang Hao, Xihe Li, Zhigang Wang
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    Hongzhu Zhang, Yang Xue, Wan Xie, Yan Wang, Nana Ma, Guangjun Chang, Xiangzhen Shen
    Journal of Dairy Science.2023; 106(3): 2007.     CrossRef
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    Renxu Chang, Yan Tang, Hongdou Jia, Zhihao Dong, Shuang Gao, Qian Song, Hao Dong, Qiushi Xu, Qianming Jiang, Juan J. Loor, Xudong Sun, Chuang Xu
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    Veterinary Research.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
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    Biological Trace Element Research.2022; 200(4): 1750.     CrossRef
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    Stella Hasianna, Julia Gunadi, Enny Rohmawaty, Ronny Lesmana
    Biomedical Reports.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus inhibits autophagy of bovine mammary epithelial cells through activating p38α
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    Mengyao Wang, Ziyao Fan, Hongbing Han
    Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology.2021;[Epub]     CrossRef
Autophagic elimination of Trypanosoma cruzi in the presence of metals
Laís Pessanha de Carvalho , Edésio José Tenório de Melo
J. Microbiol. 2019;57(10):918-926.   Published online August 28, 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-019-9018-6
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AbstractAbstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is an obligate intracellular parasite transmitted to vertebrate hosts by blood-sucking insects. Molecules present in parasites and mammalian cells allow the recognition and parasite internalization. Metallic ions play an essential role in the establishment and maintenance of hostparasite interaction. However, little is known about how parasites handle with essential and nonessential metal quotas. This study aimed to investigate the influence of metal ions on the biological processes of T. cruzi infected cells. Infected cells were incubated with ZnCl2, CdCl2, and HgCl2 for 12 h and labeled with different specific dyes to investigate the cellular events related to intracellular parasite death and elimination. Infected host cells and parasite’s mitochondria underwent functional and structural disorders, in addition to parasite’s DNA condensation and pH decrease on host cells, which led to parasite death. Further investigations suggested that lysosomes were involved in pH decrease and the double membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum formed vacuoles surrounding damaged parasites, which indicate the occurrence of autophagy for parasite elimination. In conclusion, low concentrations of nonessential and essential metals cause a series of damage to Trypanosoma cruzi organelles, leading to its loss of viability, death, and elimination, with no removal of the host cells.

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Astragaloside IV reversed the autophagy and oxidative stress induced by the intestinal microbiota of AIS in mice
Nan Xu , Pengcheng Kan , Xiuhua Yao , Ping Yang , Jiwei Wang , Lei Xiang , Yu Zhu
J. Microbiol. 2018;56(11):838-846.   Published online October 24, 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-018-8327-5
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AbstractAbstract
Acute ischaemic stroke (AIS) seriously affects patient quality of life. We explored the role of the intestinal microbiota on oxidative stress and autophagy in stroke, and Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) reversed the changes induced by intestinal microbiota. We determined the characteristics of the intestinal microbiota of AIS and transient ischaemic attack (TIA) patients by 16S sequencing and found that the structure and diversity of the intestinal microbiota in patients with AIS and TIA were significantly different from those in healthy subjects. Specifically, the abundance of genus Bifidobacterium, Megamonas, Blautia, Holdemanella, and Clostridium, content of homocysteine and triglyceride was increased significantly, thus it may be as a potential mechanism of AIS and TIA. Furthermore, germ-free mice were infused intracolonically with fecal supernatants of TIA and AIS with/without feed AS-IV for 12 weeks, and we found that the feces of AIS up-regulated the autophagy markers Beclin-1, light chain 3 (LC3)-II and autophagy-related gene (Atg)12, and the expression of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and NADPH oxidase 2/4 (NOX2/4), malondialdehyde (MDA), however, the expression of total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) was down-regulated in brain tissue, the content of homocysteine and free fatty acids (FFA) in serum of the mice. Meanwhile, AS-IV could reverse the above phenomenon, however, it does not affect the motor function of mice. AS-IV reversed these changes and it may be a potential drug for AIS therapeutics.

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Review
Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Infection Induces Autophagy in MDBK Cells
Qiang Fu , Huijun Shi , Yan Ren , Fei Guo , Wei Ni , Jun Qiao , Pengyan Wang , Hui Zhang , Chuangfu Chen
J. Microbiol. 2014;52(7):619-625.   Published online June 28, 2014
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-014-3479-4
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AbstractAbstract
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the genus Pestivirus (Flaviviridae). The signaling pathways and levels of signaling molecules are altered in Madin-Darby Bovine Kidney (MDBK) cells infected with BVDV. Autophagy is a conservative biological degradation pathway that mainly eliminates and degrades damaged or superfluous organelles and macromolecular complexes for intracellular recycling in eukaryotic cells. Autophagy can also be induced as an effective response to maintain cellular homeostasis in response to different stresses, such as nutrient or growth factor deprivation, hypoxia, reactive oxygen species exposure and pathogen infection. However, the effects of BVDV infection on autophagy inMDBK cells remain unclear. Therefore, we performed an analysis of autophagic activity after BVDV NADL infection using real-time PCR, electron microscopy, laser confocal microscopy, and Western blotting analysis. The results demonstrated that BVDV NADL infection increased autophagic activity and significantly elevated the expression levels of the autophagy-related genes Beclin1 and ATG14 inMDBK cells. However, the knockdown of Beclin1 and ATG14 by RNA interference (RNAi) did not affect BVDV NADL infection-related autophagic activity. These findings provided a novel perspective to elaborate the effects of viral infection on the host cells.

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