Salmonella Typhimurium is an invasive gastrointestinal pathogen for both humans and animals. To investigate the genetic framework and diversity of S.
Typhimurium, a total of 194 S. Typhimurium isolates were collected from patients in a tertiary hospital between 2020 and 2021. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was used to confirm the resistance phenotype. Whole-genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were performed to determine the sequence type, phylogenetic relationships, resistance gene profiles, Salmonella pathogenicity island (SPI) and the diversity of the core and pan genome. The result showed that 57.22% of S. Typhimurium isolates were multidrug resistant and resistance of total isolates to the first-line drug ciprofloxacin was identified in 60.82%. The population structure of S. Typhimurium was categorized into three lineages: ST19 (20.10%, 39/194), ST34-1 (47.42%, 92/194) and ST34-2 (40.65%, 63/194), with the population size exhibiting increasing trends. All lineages harbored variety of fimbrial operons, prophages, SPIs and effectors that contributed to the virulence and long-term infections of S. Typhimurium. Importantly, ST34-1 lineage might potentially be more invasive due to the possession of SPI1-effector gene sopE which was essential for the proliferation, internalization and intracellular presence of S. Typhimurium in hosts. Multiple antimicrobial resistance genes were characteristically distributed across three lineages, especially carbapenem genes only detected in ST34-1&2 lineages. The distinct functional categories of pan genome among three lineages were observed in metabolism, signaling and gene information processing. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the evolved adaptation and genetic diversity of S. Typhimurium ST19 and ST34, among which ST34 lineages with multidrug resistance and potential hypervirulence need to pay more attention to epidemiological surveillance.
Quorum quenching refers to any mechanism that inhibits quorum sensing processes.
In this study, quorum quenching activity among bacteria inhabiting riverside soil was screened, and a novel Gram-stain-negative, rod shaped bacterial strain designated MMS21-HV4-11(T), which showed the highest level of quorum quenching activity, was isolated and subjected to further analysis. Strain MMS21-HV4-11(T) could be assigned to the genus Reyranella of Alphaproteobacteria based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence, as the strain shared 98.74% sequence similarity with Reyranella aquatilis seoho-37(T), and then 97.87% and 97.80% sequence similarity with Reyranella soli KIS14-15(T) and Reyranella massiliensis 521(T), respectively. The decomposed N-acyl homoserine lactone was restored at high concentrations under acidic conditions, implying that lactonase and other enzyme(s) are responsible for quorum quenching. The genome analysis indicated that strain MMS21-HV4-11(T) had two candidate genes for lactonase and one for acylase, and expected protein structures were confirmed. In the quorum sensing inhibition assay using a plant pathogen Pectobacterium carotovorum KACC 14888, development of soft rot was significantly inhibited by strain MMS21-HV4-11(T).
Besides, the swarming motility by Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA14 was significantly inhibited in the presence of strain MMS21-HV4-11(T). Since the isolate did not display direct antibacterial activity against either of these species, the inhibition was certainly due to quorum quenching activity. In an extended study with the type strains of all known species of Reyranella, all strains were capable of degrading N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs), thus showing quorum quenching potential at the genus level. This is the first study on the quorum quenching potential and enzymes responsible in Reyranella. In addition, MMS21-HV4-11(T) could be recognized as a new species through taxonomic characterization, for which the name Reyranella humidisoli sp. nov. is proposed (type strain = MMS21-HV4-11( T) = KCTC 82780( T) = LMG 32365(T)).
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Study of N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) degradation potential of bacteria isolated from environmental samples and their impact on quorum sensing regulated biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Anju Tomy, Rakesh Yasarla Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering.2025; 13(2): 115974. CrossRef
Research progress of bacterial quorum sensing systems in synthetic biology applications Boyu Luo, Tuoyu Liu, Zhi Sun, Yue Teng Chinese Science Bulletin.2024; 69(36): 5213. CrossRef
Validation List no. 220. Valid publication of new names and new combinations effectively published outside the IJSEM
Aharon Oren, Markus Göker
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Two novel Gram-stain-negative, strictly-aerobic, rod-shaped (1.2 ± 3.4 μm × 0.3 ± 0.7 μm), and non-motile marine bacterial
species, designated MEBiC05379T
and MEBiC07777T,
were isolated from a marine sponge Pseudaxinella sp. in Gangneung
City and deep-sea sediments of the Ulleung basin in the East Sea of Korea, respectively. The 16S rRNA gene sequence
analysis revealed high levels of similarities between these strains and members of the genus Flavivirga (97.0–98.4% sequence
identities). Both novel strains revealed as mesophilic, neutrophilic in pH and slightly halophilic. Similar to those of other Flavivirga
members, the primary cellular fatty acids of both strains were iso-C15:0, iso-C15:1 G, iso-C15:03-OH, and iso-C17:0 3-OH,
with MEBiC05379T
and MEBiC07777T
containing relatively higher proportions of C12:
0 and summed feature 3 (
C16:1ω7c
and/or C16:
1ω6c). In both taxa, the major isoprenoid quinone was MK-6. The DNA G + C contents of MEBiC05379T
and
MEBiC07777T
genomes were 32.62 and 32.46 mol%, respectively. Compared to other members of Flavivirga, both strains
exhibited similar DNA G + C ratio and fatty acids pattern, yet enzyme expression and carbon sources utilization pattern were
different. Genomes of the genus Flavivirga showed enzyme preferences to fucoidan and sulfated galactans. Considering the
monophyly rule, AAI values delineate the genus Flavivirga from adjacent genera calculated to be 76.0–78.7%. Based on
the phenotypic, genomic and biochemical data, strains for MEBiC05379T
and MEBiC07777T
thus represent two novel species
in the genus Flavivirga, for which the names Flavivirga spongiicola sp. nov. (
MEBiC05379T [= KCTC 92527
T = JCM
16662
T]), and Flavivirga abyssicola sp. nov. (
MEBiC07777T [= KCTC 92563
T = JCM 36477
T]) are proposed.
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Rhodobacteraceae are Prevalent and Ecologically Crucial Bacterial Members in Marine Biofloc Aquaculture Meora Rajeev, Jang-Cheon Cho Journal of Microbiology.2024; 62(11): 985. CrossRef
Validation List no. 220. Valid publication of new names and new combinations effectively published outside the IJSEM
Aharon Oren, Markus Göker
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Optimization of Culture Medium for the Production of an Exopolysaccharide (p-CY02) with Cryoprotective Activity by Pseudoalteromonas sp. RosPo-2 from the Antarctic Sea Pilsung Kang, Sung Jin Kim, Ha Ju Park, Il Chan Kim, Se Jong Han, Joung Han Yim Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology.2024; 34(5): 1135. CrossRef
The metal cofactors are essential for the function of many enzymes. The host restricts the metal acquisition of pathogens for
their immunity and the pathogens have evolved many ways to obtain metal ions for their survival and growth. Salmonella
enterica serovar Typhimurium also needs several metal cofactors for its survival, and manganese has been found to contribute
to Salmonella pathogenesis. Manganese helps Salmonella withstand oxidative and nitrosative stresses. In addition,
manganese affects glycolysis and the reductive TCA, which leads to the inhibition of energetic and biosynthetic metabolism.
Therefore, manganese homeostasis is crucial for full virulence of Salmonella. Here, we summarize the current information
about three importers and two exporters of manganese that have been identified in Salmonella. MntH, SitABCD, and ZupT
have been shown to participate in manganese uptake. mntH and sitABCD are upregulated by low manganese concentration,
oxidative stress, and host NRAMP1 level. mntH also contains a Mn2+-
dependent riboswitch in its 5′ UTR. Regulation of
zupT expression requires further investigation. MntP and YiiP have been identified as manganese efflux proteins. mntP is
transcr!ptionally activated by MntR at high manganese levels and repressed its activity by MntS at low manganese levels.
Regulation of yiiP requires further analysis, but it has been shown that yiiP expression is not dependent on MntS. Besides
these five transporters, there might be additional transporters that need to be identified.
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Functional characterization of a TerC family protein of
Riemerella anatipestifer
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Qinyuan Chen, Fang Guo, Li Huang, Mengying Wang, Chunfeng Shi, Shutong Zhang, Yizhou Yao, Mingshu Wang, Dekang Zhu, Renyong Jia, Shun Chen, Xinxin Zhao, Qiao Yang, Ying Wu, Shaqiu Zhang, Bin Tian, Juan Huang, Xumin Ou, Qun Gao, Di Sun, Ling Zhang, Yanling Applied and Environmental Microbiology.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
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Wei Peng, Yafei Xu, Yilin Yin, Jichen Xie, Renhui Ma, Guoyuan Song, Zhiqiang Zhang, Qiuhang Quan, Qinggen Jiang, Moran Li, Bei Li, Michael David Leslie Johnson mSphere.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
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Two novel bacterial species CJ51T
and CJ63T
belonging to the genus Chryseobacterium were isolated from the Upo wetland
and the Han River, South Korea, respectively. Cells of these strains were Gram-stain-negative, aerobic, non-motile, rodshaped,
and catalase- and oxidase-positive. Both strains were shown to grow optimally at 30 °C and pH 7 in the absence of
NaCl on tryptic soy agar. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences showed that strains CJ51T
and CJ63T
belonged to the genus Chryseobacterium and were most closely related to Chryseobacterium piperi CTMT
and Chryseobacterium
piscicola VQ-6316sT with 98.47% and 98.46% 16S rRNA sequence similarities, respectively. The average nucleotide
identity values of strains CJ51T
and CJ63T
with its closely related type strains Chryseobacterium piperi CTMT
and Chryseobacterium
piscicola VQ-6316sT were 81.9% and 82.1%, respectively. The major fatty acids of strains CJ51T
and CJ63T
were iso-C15:0, iso-C17:0 3-OH and summed feature 9 (
C16:0 10-methyl and/or iso-C17:1ω9c). Menaquinone 6 (MK-6) was
identified as the primary respiratory quinone in both strains. The major polar lipids of strains CJ51T
and CJ63T
were phosphatidylethanolamine
and several unidentified amino lipids and lipids. Based on polyphasic taxonomy data, strains CJ51T
and CJ63T
represent novel species of the genus Chryseobacterium, for which names Chryseobacterium paludis sp. nov. and
Chryseobacterium foetidum sp. nov. are proposed respectively. The type strains are CJ51T
(= KACC 22749T
= JCM 35632T)
and CJ63T
(= KACC 22750T
= JCM 35633T).
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Pilin regions that select for the small RNA phages in
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
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Validation List no. 212. Valid publication of new names and new combinations effectively published outside the IJSEM Aharon Oren, Markus Göker
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
The potential role of the gut microbiota in the pathogenesis
of feeding intolerance (FI) remains unclear. Understanding
the role of the gut microbiota could provide a new avenue for
microbiota-targeted therapeutics. This study aimed to explore
the associations between aberrant gut microbiota and FI in
very low or extremely low birth weight (VLBW/ELBW) preterm
infants. In this observational case-control study, VLBW/
ELBW infants were divided into two groups: FI group and
feeding tolerance (FT) group. 16S rRNA gene sequencing was
performed to analyze the gut microbial diversity and composition
of the infants. The differences in the gut microbiota of
the two groups were compared. In total, 165 stool samples
were obtained from 44 infants, among which, 31 developed
FI and 13 served as controls. Alpha diversity was the highest
in the meconium samples of the two groups. LEfSe analysis
revealed that the abundances of Peptostreptococcaceae, Clostridiales
and Clostridia in the FT group were significantly higher
than in the FI group. At the phylum level, the FI group was dominated
by Proteobacteria, and the FT group was dominated
by Firmicutes. The meconium samples of the FI group had
higher proportions of γ-proteobacteria and Escherichia-Shigella
and a lower proportion of Bacteroides compared with the FT
group. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG)
analysis demonstrated that aberrant gut bacteria in the FI group
were strongly associated with dysregulation of C5-Brancheddibasic-
acid-metabolism, protein kinases, and sporulation.
These findings reveal candidate microbial markers to prevent
FI. Increased relative abundances of γ-proteobacteria
and Escherichia-Shigella and decreased abundance of Bacteroides
in meconium were associated with an increased risk
of FI, while Peptostreptococcaceae, Clostridiales and Clostridia
reduced the risk of FI in VLBW/ELBW infants.
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Streptococcus suis type 2 (S. suis type 2, SS2), an infectious
pathogen which is zoonotic and can induce severely public
health concern. Our previous research identified a newly differential
secreted effector of tagatose-bisphosphate aldolase
(LacD) mediated by VirD4 factor within the putative type IV
secretion system of SS2, whereas the functional basis and roles
in virulence of LacD remain elusive. Here in this study, the
LacD was found enzymatic and can be activated to express
under oxidative stress. Gene mutant and its complemental
strain (ΔlacD and cΔlacD) were constructed to analyze the
phenotypes, virulence and transcriptomic profiles as compared
with the parental strain. The lacD gene deletion showed
no effect on growth capability and cells morphology of SS2.
However, reduced tolerance to oxidative and heat stress conditions,
increased antimicrobial susceptibility to ciprofloxacin
and kanamycin were found in ΔlacD strain. Further, the LacD
deficiency led to weakened invasion and attenuated virulence
since an easier phagocytosed and more prone to be cleared of
SS2 in macrophages were shown in ΔlacD mutant. Distinctive
transcriptional profiling in ΔlacD strain and typical downregulated
genes with significant mRNA changes including
alcohol dehydrogenase, GTPase, integrative and conjugative
elements, and iron ABC transporters which were mainly involved
in cell division, stress response, antimicrobial susceptibility
and virulence regulation, were examined and confirmed
by RNA sequencing and real time qPCR. In summary, the results demonstrated for the first time that LacD was a pluripotent
protein mediated the metabolic, stress and virulent
effect of SS2.
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Helicobacter pylori infection causes chronic inflammation
in the stomach, which is linked to the development of gastric
cancer. The anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects of a
glycolysis inhibitor 2-deoxyglucose (2DG) and an antidiabetic
medication metformin (Met) have gotten attention. Using a
Mongolian gerbil animal model, we investigated H. pylorimediated
gastric pathogenesis and how this pathogenesis is
influenced by 2DG and Met. Five-week-old male gerbils were
infected with H. pylori strain 7.13. After 2 weeks of infection,
gerbils were fed 2DG-containing food (0.03% w/w), Met-containing
water (0.5% w/v), or both (Combi) for 2 (short-term)
or 10 weeks (long-term). Gastric pathogenesis and host response
to H. pylori infection were examined by macroscopic
and histopathologic analysis of gerbils’ stomach. As a result,
indicators of gastric pathogenesis by H. pylori infection including
infiltration of polymorphonuclear neutrophils and
lymphocytes, intestinal metaplasia, atrophy, and proliferation
of gastric epithelial cells were attenuated by short-term administration
of 2DG, Met, or Combi. When the infection was
sustained for long-term, gastric pathogenesis in drug-treated
gerbils was equivalent to that in untreated gerbils, with the
exception that the infiltration of neutrophil was reduced by
2DG. Colonization of H. pylori in stomach was unaffected
by both short- and long-term treatments. Our findings demonstrate
that the progression of gastric pathogenesis induced
by H. pylori infection can be attenuated by the shortterm
individual or combinational treatment of 2DG and
Met, implying that 2DG or Met could be considered as a
treatment option for gastric diseases in the early stages of
infection.
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Antibacterial and Immunoregulatory Effects of Metformin against Helicobacter pylori Infection in Rat Model Hassan Valadbeigi, Saeed Khoshnood, Babak Negahdari, Mohd Azmuddin Abdullah, Mohammad Hossein Haddadi, Abhimanyu Abhimanyu BioMed Research International.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
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Considering the serious threat to food safety and public
health posed by pathogens with colistin resistance, colistin was
banned as a growth promoter in 2017 in China. In recent years,
the resistance rate of Escherichia coli isolated from animal
intestines or feces to colistin has decreased. However, the prevalence
and characteristics of the mcr-1 gene in retail meat have
not been well explored. Herein, 106 mcr-1-negative and 16 mcr-
1-positive E. coli isolates were randomly recovered from 120 retail
meat samples and screened using colistin. The 106 E. coli
isolates showed maximum resistance to sulfafurazole (73.58%)
and tetracycline (62.26%) but susceptibility to colistin (0.00%).
All 16 mcr-1-positive E. coli isolates showed resistance to colistin,
were extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-positive
and exhibited complex multidrug resistance (MDR). For these
16 isolates, 17 plasmid replicons and 42 antibiotic resistance
genes were identified, and at least 7 antibiotic resistance genes
were found in each isolate. Acquired disinfectant resistance
genes were identified in 75.00% (12/16) of the isolates. Furthermore,
comparative genomic and phylogenetic analysis results indicated that these 16 mcr-1-positive E. coli isolates
and the most prevalent mcr-1-harboring IncI2 plasmid in
this study were closely related to other previously reported
mcr-1-positive E. coli isolates and the IncI2 plasmid, respectively,
showing their wide distribution. Taken together, our
findings showed that retail meat products were a crucial reservoir
of mcr-1 during the colistin ban period and should
be continuously monitored.
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Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) is an important
zoonotic pathogen that places severe burdens on public
health and animal husbandry. There are many pathogenic
factors in E. coli. The type VI secretion system (T6SS) is a
nano-microbial weapon that can assemble quickly and inject
toxic effectors into recipient cells when danger is encountered.
T6SSs are encoded in the genomes of approximately
25% of sequenced Gram-negative bacteria. When these bacteria
come into contact with eukaryotic cells or prokaryotic
microbes, the T6SS assembles and secretes associated effectors.
In the porcine ExPEC strain PCN033, we identified four
classic rearrangement hotspot (Rhs) genes. We determined
the functions of the four Rhs proteins through mutant construction
and protein expression. Animal infection experiments
showed that the Δrhs-1CT, Δrhs-2CT, Δrhs-3CT, and
Δrhs-4CT caused a significant decrease in the multiplication
ability of PCN033 in vivo. Cell infection experiments showed
that the Rhs protein is involved in anti-phagocytosis activities
and bacterial adhesion and invasion abilities. The results
of this study demonstrated that rhs1, rhs3, and rh4 plays an
important role in the interaction between PCN033 and host
cell. Rhs2 has contribution to cell and mice infection. This
study helps to elucidate the pathogenic mechanism governing
PCN033 and may help to establish a foundation for further
research seeking to identify potential T6SS effectors.
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in vivo
fitness of multi-drug resistant porcine extraintestinal pathogenic
Escherichia coli
by transposon-directed insertion site sequencing usin Fan Yin, Yan Hu, Zixuan Bu, Yuying Liu, Hui Zhang, Yawen Hu, Ying Xue, Shaowen Li, Chen Tan, Xiabing Chen, Lu Li, Rui Zhou, Qi Huang Virulence.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
Dual RNA-Seq of Flavobacterium psychrophilum and Its Outer Membrane Vesicles Distinguishes Genes Associated with Susceptibility to Bacterial Cold-Water Disease in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Pratima Chapagain, Ali Ali, Mohamed Salem Pathogens.2023; 12(3): 436. CrossRef
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Microbial Genomics
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Vibrio parahaemolyticus possesses two types of flagella: a
single polar flagellum (Pof) for swimming and the peritrichous
lateral flagella (Laf) for swarming. Expression of Laf
genes has previously been reported to be regulated by the quorum
sensing (QS) regulators AphA and OpaR. In the present
study, we showed that OpaR, the QS regulator at high cell density
(HCD), acted as a negative regulator of swimming motility
and the transcription of Pof genes in V. parahaemolyticus.
OpaR bound to the promoter-proximal DNA regions
of flgAMN, flgMN, and flgBCDEFGHIJ within the Pof gene
loci to repress their transcription, whereas it negatively regulates
the transcription of flgKL-flaC in an indirect manner.
Thus, this work investigated how QS regulated the swimming
motility via direct action of its master regulator OpaR on
the transcription of Pof genes in V. parahaemolyticus.
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SARS-CoV-2 was originated from zoonotic coronaviruses
and confirmed as a novel beta-coronavirus, which causes serious
respiratory illness such as pneumonia and lung failure,
COVID-19. In this review, we describe the genetic characteristics
of SARS-CoV-2, including types of mutation, and
molecular epidemiology, highlighting its key difference from
animal coronaviruses. We further summarized the current
knowledge on clinical, genetic, and pathological features of
several animal coronaviruses and compared them with SARSCoV-
2, as well as recent evidences of interspecies transmission
and recombination of animal coronaviruses to provide a better
understanding of SARS-CoV-2 infection in One Health
perspectives. We also discuss the potential wildlife hosts and
zoonotic origin of this emerging virus in detail, that may help
mitigate the spread and damages caused by the disease.
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Ammonia oxidation, performed by ammonia-oxidizing archaea
(AOA) and bacteria (AOB), plays a critical role in the cycle
of nitrogen in the ocean. For now, environmental variables
controlling distribution of ammonia-oxidizing microbes are
still largely unknown in oceanic environments. In this study,
we used real-time quantitative PCR and high-throughput sequencing methods to investigate the abundance and diversity
of AOA and AOB from sediment and water in Zhanjiang Bay.
Phylogenic analysis revealed that the majority of AOA amoA
sequences in water and sediment were affiliated with the genus
Nitrosopumilus, whereas the Nitrosotalea cluster was only detected
with low abundance in water. Nitrosomonas and Nitrosospira
dominated AOB amoA sequences in water and sediment,
respectively. The amoA copy numbers of both AOA and
AOB varied significantly with month for both sediment and
water. When water and sediment temperature dropped to 17–
20°C in December and February, respectively, the copy number
of AOB amoA genes increased markedly and was much
higher than for AOA amoA genes. Also, AOA abundance in
water peaked in December when water temperature was lowest
(17–20°C). Stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed that
temperature was the most key factor driving monthly changes
of AOA or AOB abundance. It is inferred that low water temperature
may inhibit growth of phytoplankton and other microbes
and so reduce competition for a common substrate,
ammonium.
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) UL99 encodes a late tegument
protein pp28 that is essential for envelopment and
production of infectious virus. This protein is localized to
the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment
(ERGIC) in transfected cells but it localizes to the cytoplasmic
assembly compartment (AC) in HCMV-infected cells. Trafficking
of pp28 to the AC is required for the assembly of infectious
virus. The N-terminal domain (aa 1-61) of pp28 is
sufficient for trafficking and function of the wild type protein
during viral infection. However, residues required for
authentic pp28 trafficking with the exception of the acidic
cluster in the N-terminal domain of pp28 remain undefined.
Monitoring protein migration on SDS-PAGE, we found that
pp28 is phosphorylated in the virus-infected cells and dephosphorylated
in the viral particles. By generating substitution
mutants of pp28, we showed that three serine residues
(aa 41–43) and a tyrosine residue (aa 34) account for its phosphorylation.
The mutant forms of pp28 were localized to the
plasma membrane as well as the ERGIC in transfected cells.
Likewise, these mutant proteins were localized to the plasma
membrane as well as the AC in virus-infected cells. These results
suggested that phosphorylation of pp28 contributes to
its intracellular trafficking and efficient viral assembly and
incorporation.
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While several methods for determining postmortem submersion
interval (PMSI) in drowning cases have been suggested,
the estimation of PMSI remains difficult. Next-generation
sequencing (NGS) technology enables simultaneous
identification of multiple taxa from environmental samples.
Although NGS has been applied to estimate time since death,
this application has been mainly focused on terrestrial cases.
As a case study, we investigated microeukaryotic biodiversity
and community structures in submerged car bonnet and
drowned pig using NGS technology. NGS analysis showed
that the microeukaryotic biodiversity in pig carcass was relevantly
lower than that in car bonnet. NGS results also revealed
that water molds and algae were related to decomposition.
Relative abundances of Filobasidium, Achlya, Saprolegnia,
Hydrodicton, Lobosphaera, and Scenedesmus varied
with decomposition period. This data indicated that these
taxa might be useful as good indicators to estimate PMSI.
This study showed microeukaryotic community analysis using
NGS technology may help solve drowning cases in forensic
investigation.
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