Journal of Microbiology

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Virgibacillus saliphilus sp. nov. and Virgibacillus salidurans sp. nov., isolated from kimchi: Young Joon Oh, Joon Yong Kim, Min-Sung Kwon, Sulhee Lee, Sang-Pil Choi, Hak-Jong Choi; J. Microbiol. 2025;63(1):e:2501001. Published online January 24, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.71150/jm.2501001

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material: This study aimed to provide a taxonomic description of two bacterial strains, NKC19-3T and NKC19-16T, isolated from commercially produced kimchi obtained from various regions within the Republic of Korea. Both strains were rod-shaped, gram-stain-positive, facultatively anaerobic, and displayed positive reactions for oxidase and catalase. Additionally, these bacteria were motile, halophilic (salt-tolerant), and proliferated under alkaline conditions. Genetically, both strains showed 98.0% similarity in their 16S rRNA gene sequences and were most closely related to Virgibacillus natechei FarDT, with 96.5 and 96.8% sequence similarity, respectively. ANI values indicated that the two novel strains were distinct from V. natechei FarDT, as they were below the species demarcation threshold. The ANI value between strains NKC19-3ᵀ and NKC19-16ᵀ was 84.64–84.75%, and the values between these strains and other related strains did not exceed 80.0%, further supporting their classification as novel species. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that strains NKC19-3T and NKC19-16T formed a distinct branch within the genus Virgibacillus, clearly distinguishing them from other species in the same genus. Regarding genomic characteristics, the GC content was 38.9% for strain NKC19-3T and 39.5% for strain NKC19-16T. The genome of strain NKC19-3T had a size of approximately 4.1 Mb and contained 3,785 protein-coding genes (CDSs). Strain NKC19-16T had a slightly smaller genome, approximately 3.9 Mb in size and harbored 3,726 CDSs. The polar lipid profiles of strains NKC19-3ᵀ and NKC19-16ᵀ included diphosphatidylglycerol (DPG), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), glycolipids (GL), and an unidentified lipid (L). The predominant fatty acids of both strains were anteiso-C15:0 and anteiso-C17:0. Considering the comprehensive analysis encompassing phenotypic, genomic, phylogenetic, and chemotaxonomic data, strains NKC19-3T and NKC19-16T are proposed to represent two novel species within the genus Virgibacillus. The suggested names for these species are Virgibacillus saliphilus sp. nov. (type strain NKC19-3T, also referred to as KACC 22326T and DSM 112707T) and Virgibacillus salidurans sp. nov. (type strain NKC19-16T, also referred to as KACC 22327T and DSM 112708T).

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Advances in functional analysis of the microbiome: Integrating metabolic modeling, metabolite prediction, and pathway inference with Next-Generation Sequencing data: Sungwon Jung; J. Microbiol. 2025;63(1):e:2411006. Published online January 24, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.71150/jm.2411006

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Abstract PDF: This review explores current advancements in microbiome functional analysis enabled by next-generation sequencing technologies, which have transformed our understanding of microbial communities from mere taxonomic composition to their functional potential. We examine approaches that move beyond species identification to characterize microbial activities, interactions, and their roles in host health and disease. Genome-scale metabolic models allow for in-depth simulations of metabolic networks, enabling researchers to predict microbial metabolism, growth, and interspecies interactions in diverse environments. Additionally, computational methods for predicting metabolite profiles offer indirect insights into microbial metabolic outputs, which is crucial for identifying biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. Functional pathway analysis tools further reveal microbial contributions to metabolic pathways, highlighting alterations in response to environmental changes and disease states. Together, these methods offer a powerful framework for understanding the complex metabolic interactions within microbial communities and their impact on host physiology. While significant progress has been made, challenges remain in the accuracy of predictive models and the completeness of reference databases, which limit the applicability of these methods in under-characterized ecosystems. The integration of these computational tools with multi-omic data holds promise for personalized approaches in precision medicine, allowing for targeted interventions that modulate the microbiome to improve health outcomes. This review highlights recent advances in microbiome functional analysis, providing a roadmap for future research and translational applications in human health and environmental microbiology.

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PneusPage: A WEB-BASED TOOL for the analysis of Whole-Genome Sequencing Data of Streptococcus pneumonia: Eunju Hong, Youngjin Shin, Hyunseong Kim, Woo Young Cho, Woo-Hyun Song, Seung-Hyun Jung, Minho Lee; J. Microbiol. 2025;63(1):e:2409020. Published online January 24, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.71150/jm.2409020

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material: With the advent of whole-genome sequencing, opportunities to investigate the population structure, transmission patterns, antimicrobial resistance profiles, and virulence determinants of Streptococcus pneumoniae at high resolution have been increasingly expanding. Consequently, a user-friendly bioinformatics tool is needed to automate the analysis of Streptococcus pneumoniae whole-genome sequencing data, summarize clinically relevant genomic features, and further guide treatment options. Here, we developed PneusPage, a web-based tool that integrates functions for species prediction, molecular typing, drug resistance determination, and data visualization of Streptococcus pneumoniae. To evaluate the performance of PneusPage, we analyzed 80 pneumococcal genomes with different serotypes from the Global Pneumococcal Sequencing Project and compared the results with those from another platform, PathogenWatch. We observed a high concordance between the two platforms in terms of serotypes (100% concordance rate), multilocus sequence typing (100% concordance rate), penicillin-binding protein typing (88.8% concordance rate), and the Global Pneumococcal Sequencing Clusters (98.8% concordance rate). In addition, PneusPage offers integrated analysis functions for the detection of virulence and mobile genetic elements that are not provided by previous platforms. By automating the analysis pipeline, PneusPage makes whole-genome sequencing data more accessible to non-specialist users, including microbiologists, epidemiologists, and clinicians, thereby enhancing the utility of whole-genome sequencing in both research and clinical settings. PneusPage is available at https://pneuspage.minholee.net/.

Characteristics of skin microbiome associated with disease severity in systemic sclerosis: Kyung-Ann Lee, Asad Ul-Haq, Hoonhee Seo, Sujin Jo, Sukyung Kim, Ho-Yeon Song, Hyun-Sook Kim; J. Microbiol. 2025;63(1):e:2409018. Published online January 24, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.71150/jm.2409018

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material: Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a chronic autoimmune disorder characterised by skin fibrosis and internal organ involvement. Disruptions in the microbial communities on the skin may contribute to the onset of autoimmune diseases that affect the skin. However, current research on the skin microbiome in SSc is lacking. This study aimed to investigate skin microbiome associated with disease severity in SSc. Skin swabs were collected from the upper limbs of 46 healthy controls (HCs) and 36 patients with SSc. Metagenomic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene was conducted and stratified by cutaneous subtype and modified Rodnan skin score (mRSS) severity. Significant differences in skin bacterial communities were observed between the HCs and patients with SSc, with further significant variations based on subtype and mRSS severity. The identified biomarkers were Bacteroides and Faecalibacterium for patients with diffuse cutaneous SSc with high mRSS (≥ 10) and Mycobacterium and Parabacteroides for those with low mRSS (< 10). Gardnerella, Abies, Lactobacillus, and Roseburia were the biomarkers in patients with limited cutaneous SSc (lcSS) and high mRSS, whereas Coprococcus predominated in patients with lcSS and low mRSS. Cutaneous subtype analysis identified Pediococcus as a biomarker in the HCs, whereas mRSS analysis revealed the presence of Pseudomonas in conjunction with Pediococcus. In conclusion, patients with SSc exhibit distinct skin microbiota compared with healthy controls. Bacterial composition varies by systemic sclerosis cutaneous subtype and skin thickness.

Korean Red ginseng enhances ZBP1-mediated cell death to suppress viral protein expression in host defense against Influenza A virus: Jueun Oh, Hayeon Kim, Jihye Lee, Suhyun Kim, Seyun Shin, Young-Eui Kim, Sehee Park, SangJoon Lee; J. Microbiol. 2025;63(1):e:2409007. Published online January 24, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.71150/jm.2409007

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material: Korean Red ginseng has emerged as a potent candidate in the fight against various viral infections, demonstrating significant efficacy both in vitro and in vivo, particularly against influenza A viruses. Despite substantial evidence of its antiviral properties, the detailed molecular mechanisms through which it reduces viral lethality remain insufficiently understood. Our investigations have highlighted the superior effectiveness of Korean Red ginseng against influenza viruses, outperforming its effects on numerous other viral strains. We aim to uncover the specific mechanisms by which Korean Red ginseng exerts its antiviral effects, focusing on influenza A viruses. Our prior studies have identified the role of Z-DNA-binding protein 1 (ZBP1), a signaling complex involved in inducing programmed cell death in response to influenza virus infection. Given the critical role of ZBP1 as a sensor for viral nucleic acid, we hypothesize that Korean Red ginseng may modulate the ZBP1-derived cell death pathway. This interaction is anticipated to enhance cell death while concurrently suppressing viral protein expression, offering novel insights into the antiviral mechanism of Korean Red ginseng against influenza A viruses.

Simultaneous gene editing of both nuclei in a dikaryotic strain of Ganoderma lucidum using Cas9-gRNA ribonucleoprotein: Yeon-Jae Choi, Hyerang Eom, Rutuja Nandre, Minseek Kim, Youn-Lee Oh, Sinil Kim, Hyeon-Su Ro; J. Microbiol. 2025;63(1):e:2409006. Published online January 24, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.71150/jm.2409006

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material: The presence of multiple nuclei in a common cytoplasm poses a significant challenge to genetic modification in mushrooms. Here, we demonstrate successful gene editing in both nuclei of a dikaryotic strain of Ganoderma lucidum using the Cas9-gRNA ribonucleoprotein complex (RNP). The RNP targeting the pyrG gene was introduced into dikaryotic protoplasts of G. lucidum, resulting in the isolation of 31 mycelial colonies resistant to 5-fluoroorotic acid (5-FOA). Twenty-six of these isolates were confirmed as dikaryotic strains by the presence of two distinct A mating type markers, denoted as A1 and A2. All dikaryons exhibited clamp connections on their mycelial hyphae, while the remaining 5 transformants were monokaryotic. Subsequent sequence analysis of PCR amplicons targeting pyrG revealed that two dikaryons harbored disrupted pyrG in both nuclei (pyrG-/pyrG-), while 10 and 14 displayed pyrG+/pyrG- (A1/A2) and pyrG-/pyrG+ (A1/A2) configurations, respectively. The disruption was achieved through non-homologous end joining repair, involving deletion or insertion of DNA fragments at the site of the double-strand break induced by RNP. Importantly, the nuclei were stable throughout 10 serial transfers over a period of 6 months. These findings highlight the capability of RNP to target genes across multiple nuclei within the same cytoplasm.

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A review on computational models for predicting protein solubility: Teerapat Pimtawong, Jun Ren, Jingyu Lee, Hyang-Mi Lee, Dokyun Na; J. Microbiol. 2025;63(1):e:2408001. Published online January 24, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.71150/jm.2408001

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Abstract PDF: Protein solubility is a critical factor in the production of recombinant proteins, which are widely used in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, and biotechnology. Predicting protein solubility remains a challenging task due to the complexity of protein structures and the multitude of factors influencing solubility. Recent advances in computational methods, particularly those based on machine learning, have provided powerful tools for predicting protein solubility, thereby reducing the need for extensive experimental trials. This review provides an overview of current computational approaches to predict protein solubility. We discuss the datasets, features, and algorithms employed in these models. The review aims to bridge the gap between computational predictions and experimental validations, fostering the development of more accurate and reliable solubility prediction models that can significantly enhance recombinant protein production.

Journal Articles

Thalassotalea aquiviva sp. nov., and Thalassotalea maritima sp. nov., Isolated from Seawater of the Coast in South Korea: Jina Lee, Seung-Hui Song, Kira Moon, Nakyeong Lee, Sangdon Ryu, Hye Seon Song, Sung Moon Lee, Yun Ji Kim, Se Won Chun, Kyung-Min Choi, Aslan Hwanhwi Lee; J. Microbiol. 2024;62(12):1099-1111. Published online December 10, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-024-00191-4

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Abstract: Two novel bacterial strains, 273M-4^T and Sam97^T, were isolated from seawater in the Yellow Sea, Muan-gun, South Korea, and identified as members of the genus Thalassotalea. Both strains were Gram-stain-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped, non-motile, non-flagellated, and oxidase- and catalase-positive. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences showed that strains 273M-4^T and Sam97^T were most closely related to Thalassotalea ponticola KCTC 42155^T, with sequence similarities of 97.5% and 98.3%, respectively. Optimal growth for strain 273M-4^T occurred at 25-30 °C, pH 7.0, and 2% NaCl, while strain Sam97^T grew optimally at 30 °C, pH 8.0, and 2% NaCl. Genome sizes of strains 273M-4^T and Sam97^T were 3.37 and 3.31 Mb, with DNA G + C contents of 41.0 mol% and 42.9 mol%, respectively. The orthologous average nucleotide identity (OrthoANI) and digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) values between the two strains were 71.6% and 24.4%, respectively, indicating that they are distinct species. Further genomic analyses of these two strains revealed OrthoANI values of < 73.5% and dDDH values of < 26.7% within the genus Thalassotalea, suggesting their distinctiveness from other Thalassotalea species. The predominate fatty acids of strains 273M-4^T and Sam97^T were summed feature 3 (consisting of C_16:1 ω7c/C_16:1 ω6c) and C_16:0. All strains contained phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylglycerol as the major polar lipids and ubiquinone-8 (Q-8) as the primary respiratory quinone. Based on phenotypic, phylogenetic, genotypic, and chemotaxonomic data, strains 273M-4^T (= KCTC 8644^T = LMG 33695^T) and Sam97^T (= KCTC 8645^T = LMG 33694^T) represent novel species of the genus Thalassotalea, named Thalassotalea aquiviva sp. nov. and Thalassotalea maritima sp. nov..

Characterization of Newly Isolated Bacteriophages Targeting Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae: Bokyung Kim, Shukho Kim, Yoon-Jung Choi, Minsang Shin, Jungmin Kim; J. Microbiol. 2024;62(12):1133-1153. Published online December 10, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-024-00180-7

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Abstract: Klebsiella pneumoniae, a Gram-negative opportunistic pathogen, is increasingly resistant to carbapenems in clinical settings. This growing problem necessitates the development of alternative antibiotics, with phage therapy being one promising option. In this study, we investigated novel phages targeting carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) and evaluated their lytic capacity against clinical isolates of CRKP. First, 23 CRKP clinical isolates were characterized using Multi-Locus Sequence Typing (MLST), carbapenemase test, string test, and capsule typing. MLST classified the 23 K. pneumoniae isolates into 10 sequence types (STs), with the capsule types divided into nine known and one unknown type. From sewage samples collected from a tertiary hospital, 38 phages were isolated. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of these phages was performed using Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA-PCR (RAPD-PCR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and whole genome sequencing (WGS) analysis. Host spectrum analysis revealed that each phage selectively lysed strains sharing the same STs as their hosts, indicating ST-specific activity. These phages were subtyped based on their host spectrum and RAPD-PCR, identifying nine and five groups, respectively. Fourteen phages were selected for further analysis using TEM and WGS, revealing 13 Myoviruses and one Podovirus. Genomic analysis grouped the phages into three clusters: one closely related to Alcyoneusvirus, one to Autographiviridae, and others to Straboviridae. Our results showed that the host spectrum of K. pneumoniae-specific phages corresponds to the STs of the host strain. These 14 novel phages also hold promise as valuable resources for phage therapy against CRKP.

CalR Inhibits the Swimming Motility and Polar Flagellar Gene Expression in Vibrio parahaemolyticus: Jingyang Chang, Yining Zhou, Miaomiao Zhang, Xue Li, Nan Zhang, Xi Luo, Bin Ni, Haisheng Wu, Renfei Lu, Yiquan Zhang; J. Microbiol. 2024;62(12):1125-1132. Published online December 6, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-024-00179-0

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Abstract: Vibrio parahaemolyticus has two flagellar systems, the polar flagellum and lateral flagella, which are both intricately regulated by a multitude of factors. CalR, a LysR-type transcriptional regulator, is sensitive to calcium (Ca) and plays a crucial role in regulating the virulence and swarming motility of V. parahaemolyticus. In this study, we have demonstrated that the deletion of calR significantly enhances the swimming motility of V. parahaemolyticus under low Ca conditions but not under high Ca conditions or in the absence of Ca. CalR binds to the regulatory DNA regions of flgM, flgA, and flgB, which are located within the polar flagellar gene loci, with the purpose of repressing their transcription. Additionally, it exerts an indirect negative control over the transcription of flgK. The overexpression of CalR in Escherichia coli resulted in a reduction in the expression levels of flgM, flgA, and flgB, while having no impact on the expression of flgK. In summary, this research demonstrates that the negative regulation of V. parahaemolyticus swimming motility by CalR under low Ca conditions is achieved through its regulation on the transcription of polar flagellar genes.

Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis Facilitates Susceptibility to Bloodstream Infection: Xiaomin Lin, Chun Lin, Xin Li, Fen Yao, Xiaoling Guo, Meimei Wang, Mi Zeng, Yumeng Yuan, Qingdong Xie, Xudong Huang, Xiaoyang Jiao; J. Microbiol. 2024;62(12):1113-1124. Published online December 2, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-024-00190-5

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Abstract: To study the role of intestinal flora in the development of bloodstream infections (BSIs). 42 patients and 19 healthy controls (HCs) were screened into the study and their intestinal flora was measured by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The bacterial diversity was significantly lower in the BSI group compared with that in the HCs (P < 0.001), and beta diversity was significantly differentiated between the two groups (PERMANOVA, P = 0.001). The four keystone species [Roseburia, Faecalibacterium, Prevotella, and Enterococcus (LDA > 4)] differed significantly between the two groups. Dysbiosis of fecal microbial ecology is a common condition present in patients with BSI. The proliferation of certain pathogens or reduction of SCFA-producing bacteria would cause susceptibility to BSI.

Leuconostoc aquikimchii sp. nov., a Lactic Acid Bacterium Isolated from Cabbage Watery Kimchi: Subin Kim, Se Hee Lee, Ki Hyun Kim, Misun Yun; J. Microbiol. 2024;62(12):1089-1097. Published online December 2, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-024-00188-z

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Abstract: Two Gram-stain-positive, facultatively anaerobic, non-hemolytic, coccoid-shaped bacterial strains, designated MS01(T) and MS02, were isolated from cabbage watery kimchi in the Republic of Korea. Cellular growth occurred at 5-25 ℃ (optimum, 20 ℃), pH 5-8 (optimum, pH 7) and in the presence of 0-5% (w/v) NaCl (optimum, 1%). Results of 16S rRNA gene-based phylogenetic analyses showed that strains MS01(T) and MS02 shared identical sequences, clustered within the Leuconostoc clade in phylogenetic trees, and were most closely related to Leuconostoc inhae IH003(T) and Leuconostoc gasicomitatum LMG 18811(T) with sequence similarities of 98.74%. The complete whole-genome sequences of strains MS01(T) and MS02 measured 2.04-2.06 Mbp and harbored a 50.6 kb plasmid, with DNA G + C contents of 37.7% for both. Based on average nucleotide identities (ANI) and digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) values, both strains were confirmed to belong to the same species but showed ≤ 85.9% ANI and ≤ 29.9% dDDH values to other Leuconostoc species, indicating that they represent a novel species. Metabolic pathway reconstruction revealed that both strains perform heterolactic acid fermentation, producing lactate, acetate, and ethanol. Chemotaxonomic analyses, including cellular fatty acids, polar lipids, and peptidoglycan amino acid, confirmed the inclusion of both strains within the genus Leuconostoc. Based on the phylogenetic, genomic, and phenotypic characterization, strains MS01(T) and MS02 were considered to represent a novel species within the genus Leuconostoc, for which the name Leuconostoc aquikimchii sp. nov. is proposed with MS01(T) (= KACC 23748(T) = JCM 37028(T)) as the type strain.

Comparative Secretory Efficiency of Two Chitosanase Signal Peptides from Bacillus subtilis in Escherichia coli: Tae-Yang Eom, Yehui Gang, Youngdeuk Lee, Yoon-Hyeok Kang, Eunyoung Jo, Svini Dileepa Marasinghe, Heung Sik Park, Gun-Hoo Park, Chulhong Oh; J. Microbiol. 2024;62(12):1155-1164. Published online November 25, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-024-00186-1

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Abstract: The production of recombinant proteins in Escherichia coli is often challenged by cytoplasmic expression due to proteolytic degradation and inclusion body formation. Extracellular expression can overcome these problems by simplifying downstream processing and improving protein yields. This study aims to compare the efficiency of two Bacillus subtilis chitosanase signal peptides in mediating extracellular secretion in E. coli. We identified a naturally occurring mutant signal peptide (mCsn2-SP) from B. subtilis CH2 chitosanase (CH2CSN), which is characterized by a deletion of six amino acids in the N-region relative to the signal peptide (Csn1-SP) from B. subtilis CH1 chitosanase (CH1CSN). The CH1CSN and CH2CSN genes were cloned into the pET-11a vector and protein secretion was evaluated in E. coli BL21(DE3) host cells. Expression was induced with 0.1 mM and 1 mM isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) at 30 °C for one and three days. CH2CSN showed higher secretion levels compared to CH1CSN under all experimental conditions, especially with 0.1 mM IPTG induction for 3 days, which resulted in a 2.37-fold increase in secretion. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that mCsn2-SP is capable of secreting human Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (hSOD) in E. coli BL21(DE3) and successfully translocating it to the periplasmic region. This study represents the inaugural investigation into the utilisation of a naturally modified signal peptide, thereby corroborating the assertion that signal peptide deletion variants can influence protein secretion efficiency. Furthermore, the findings substantiate the proposition that such variants can serve as a viable alternative for the secretion of heterologous proteins in E. coli.

Characterization and Comparative Genomic Analysis of vB_BceM_CEP1: A Novel Temperate Bacteriophage Infecting Burkholderia cepacia Complex: Momen Askoura, Eslam K Fahmy, Safya E Esmaeel, Wael A H Hegazy, Aliaa Abdelghafar; J. Microbiol. 2024;62(11):1035-1055. Published online November 18, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-024-00185-2

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Abstract: The increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria imminently threatens public health and jeopardizes nearly all aspects of modern medicine. The Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc) comprises Burkholderia cepacia and the related species of Gram-negative bacteria. Members of the Bcc group are opportunistic pathogens responsible for various chronic illnesses, including cystic fibrosis and chronic granulomatous disease. Phage therapy is emerging as a potential solution to combat the antimicrobial resistance crisis. In this study, a temperate phage vB_BceM_CEP1 was isolated from sewage and fully characterized. Transmission electron microscopy indicated that vB_BceM_CEP1 belongs to the family Peduoviridae. The isolated phage demonstrated enhanced environmental stability and antibiofilm potential. One-step growth analysis revealed a latent period of 30 min and an average burst size of 139 plaque-forming units per cell. The genome of vB_BceM_CEP1 consists of 32,486 bp with a GC content of 62.05%. A total of 40 open reading frames were annotated in the phage genome, and none of the predicted genes was annotated as tRNA. Notably, genes associated with antibiotic resistance, host virulence factors, and toxins were absent from the vB_BceM_CEP1 genome. Based on its unique phenotype and phylogeny, the isolated phage vB_BceM_CEP1 is classified as a new temperate phage with lytic activity. The findings of this study enhance our understanding of the diversity of Bcc phages.

Review

Fecal Microbiota Transplantation: Indications, Methods, and Challenges.: Jee Young Lee, Yehwon Kim, Jiyoun Kim, Jiyeun Kate Kim; J. Microbiol. 2024;62(12):1057-1074. Published online November 18, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-024-00184-3

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Abstract: Over the past two decades, as the importance of gut microbiota to human health has become widely known, attempts have been made to treat diseases by correcting dysbiosis of gut microbiota through fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT). Apart from current knowledge of gut microbiota, FMT to treat disease has a long history, from the treatment of food poisoning in the fourth century to the treatment of Clostridioides difficile infections in the twentieth century. In 2013, FMT was recognized as a standard treatment for recurrent C. difficile because it consistently showed high efficacy. Though recurrent C. difficile is the only disease internationally recognized for FMT efficacy, FMT has been tested for other diseases and shown some promising preliminary results. Different FMT methods have been developed using various formulations and administration routes. Despite advances in FMT, some issues remain to be resolved, such as donor screening, manufacturing protocols, and unknown components in the fecal microbiota. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms, clinical indications, methods, and challenges of current FMT. We also discuss the development of alternative therapies to overcome the challenges of FMT.

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