The soil organic carbon (SOC) mineralization rate in sandy
soil plays an important role in improving soil quality, and a
research is needed to determine management practices that
optimize the mineralization rate. When sandy soil is improved
by adding soft rock, the specific promotion process of bacterium
to SOC mineralization remain unclear. To investigate
these mechanisms, we selected four treatments with soft
rock to sand volume ratios of 0:1 (CK), 1:5 (C1), 1:2 (C2)
and 1:1 (C3) to study. The mineralization rate of organic carbon
was measured using the lye absorption method. Highthroughput
sequencing and scanning electron microscopy
were used to determine the bacterial community structure
and soil microstructure, respectively. The results showed that
the organic carbon content of the sandy soil increased significantly
(182.22–276.43%) after using the soft rock treatments.
The SOC mineralization rate could be divided into two
stages: a rapid decline during days 1–8 and a slow decline
during days 8–60. With increased incubation time, the intensity
of the cumulative release of organic carbon gradually
weakened. Compared with the CK treatment, the SOC mineralization
accumulation (Ct) and the potential mineralizable
organic carbon content (C0) in the C1, C2, and C3 treatments
increased significantly, by 106.98–225.94% and 112.22–
254.08%, respectively. The cumulative mineralization rate (Cr)
was 18.11% and 21.38% smaller with treatments C2 and C3,
respectively. The SOC mineralization rate constant (k) decreased
significantly after the addition of soft rock, while the
half-turnover period (Th) changed inversely with k. Compared
with the CK treatment, the number of gene copies of
the soil bacteria increased by 15.38–272.53% after adding soft
rock, with the most significant increase in treatment C3. The
bacterial diversity index also increased significantly under
treatment C3. The three dominant bacteria were Proteobacteria,
Actinobacteria, and Chloroflexi. The correlation between
Cr and one of the non-dominant bacteria, Firmicutes,
was large, and the bacteria had a significant positive correlation
with k. At the same time, the abundance of Firmicutes
under treatments C2 and C3 was small. As the proportion
of soft rock increased, the soil particles changed from point
contact to surface contact, and the adhesion on the surface
of the particles gradually increased. Results from this study
show that the retention time of SOC can be increased and
the carbon sequestration effect is better when the ratio of
soft rock to sand is set to 1:2.
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The threat of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is increasing worldwide.
Bacteria utilize persistence and resistance to survive
antibiotic stress. For a long time, persistence has been studied
only under laboratory conditions. Hence, studies of bacterial
persistence are limited. Recently, however, the high incidence
of infection relapses caused by persister cells in immunocompromised
patients has emphasized the importance of persister
research. Furthermore, persister pathogens are one of
the causes of chronic infectious diseases, leading to the overuse
of antibiotics and the emergence of antibiotic-resistant
bacteria. Therefore, understanding the precise mechanism of
persister formation is important for continued use of available
antibiotics. In this review, we aimed to provide an overview
of the persister studies published to date and the current
knowledge of persister formation mechanisms. Recent
studies of the features and mechanisms of persister formation
are analyzed from the perspective of the nature of the
persister cell.
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Since most bacterial cells are starving, they must enter a resting
stage. Persister is the term used for metabolically-dormant
cells that are not spores, and these cells arise from stress
such as that from antibiotics as well as that from starvation.
Because of their lack of metabolism, persister cells survive
exposure to multiple stresses without undergoing genetic
change; i.e., they have no inherited phenotype and behave as
wild-type cells once the stress is removed and nutrients are
presented. In contrast, mutations allow resistant bacteria to
grow in the presence of antibiotics and slow growth allows
tolerant cells to withstand higher concentrations of antibiotics;
hence, there are three closely-related phenotypes: persistent,
resistant, and tolerant. In addition, since dormancy
is so prevalent, persister cells must have a means for resuscitating
(since so many cells should obtain this resting state).
In this review, we focus on what is known about the formation
and resuscitation of persister cells.
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Molecular physiological characterization of the dynamics of persister formation in
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The increased antibiotic resistance among microorganisms
has resulted into growing interest for investigating the wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs) as they are reported to be
the major source in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance
genes (ARGs) and heavy metal resistance genes (HMRGs)
in the environment. In this study, we investigated the prevalence
and persistence of ARGs and HMRGs as well as bacterial
diversity and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) in influent
and effluent at the WWTP in Gwangju, South Korea,
using high-throughput sequencing based metagenomic approach.
A good number of broad-spectrum of resistance
genes (both ARG and HMRG) were prevalent and likely
persistent, although large portion of them were successfully
removed at the wastewater treatment process. The relative
abundance of ARGs and MGEs was higher in effluent as compared
to that of influent. Our results suggest that the resistance
genes with high abundance and bacteria harbouring
ARGs and MGEs are likely to persist more through the treatment
process. On analyzing the microbial community, the
phylum Proteobacteria, especially potentially pathogenic species
belonging to the genus Acinetobacter, dominated in
WWTP. Overall, our study demonstrates that many ARGs
and HMRGs may persist the treatment processes in WWTPs
and their association to MGEs may contribute to the dissemination
of resistance genes among microorganisms in the
environment.
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The recombinant plasmid of pCU103 constructed by cloning pcbCD genes in pBluescript SK(+) was studied for the effect of temperature on its persistence in different waters by the methods of electrophoresis, Southern hybridization, quantification, and transformation. The plasmid was very rapidly degraded out in non-sterile FW water without regards to water temperature, probably due to the effect of biochemical factor such as nucleases. The pCU103 was most persistent at 4℃ in any water environments, moderately persistant at 15℃, but least stable at 30℃ such results could be explained by the facts that hydrogen bonds in double-stranded plasmid DNAs become unstable and that nucleases are activated by increasing temperature. The intact structure of pCU1-3 was generally observed by gel electrophoresis under the conditions which the plasmid should be 2.0 ng/㎕ or higher in concentration and that about 10² CFU/ml or more transformant cells should be recovered.
The stbility of the genetically engineered microorganisms and their recombinant plasmids released in natural environments has been regarded as one of the molecular ecological topics. In this study, the recombinant plasmids pCU103 in which the pcbCD genes involved in biodegradation of biphenyl and 4-chlorobiphenyl were cloned in pBluescript SK(+) vector, were examined for their structural and functional stability in different waters at 15℃ by the methods of electrophoresis, Southern hybridization, quantification with fluorescent dye, and transformation. The recombinant plamids maintained their stabilities for about 30 days in sterilized distilled water (SDW), 15 days in autoclaved creek water (AW), 25 days in filtered and autoclaved non-sterible creek water (FAW), 4 days in Luria-Bertani (LB) broth, and less than one day in filtered non-sterile creek water (FW). The covalently closed circular (CCC) form of the plasmid was decreased and open circular (OC) form was increased as a function of incubation time, and then linear (L) form was produced to be ultimately degraded out. The degradation rates of the plasmid were proportionally correlated to trophic level of the water, and the biological factor such as DNases was found to be one of the most critical factors affecting structural and functional stability of the plasmid in non-sterile natural water.